Biblio

IoT malware detection using control flow graph (CFG)-based features and deep learning networks are widely explored. The main goal of this study is to investigate the robustness of such models against adversarial learning. We designed two approaches to craft adversarial IoT software: off-the-shelf methods and Graph Embedding and Augmentation (GEA) method. In the off-the-shelf adversarial learning attack methods, we examine eight different adversarial learning methods to force the model to misclassification. The GEA approach aims to preserve the functionality and practicality of the generated adversarial sample through a careful embedding of a benign sample to a malicious one. Intensive experiments are conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed method, showing that off-the-shelf adversarial attack methods are able to achieve a misclassification rate of 100%. In addition, we observed that the GEA approach is able to misclassify all IoT malware samples as benign. The findings of this work highlight the essential need for more robust detection tools against adversarial learning, including features that are not easy to manipulate, unlike CFG-based features. The implications of the study are quite broad, since the approach challenged in this work is widely used for other applications using graphs.

Genetic Programming Hyper-heuristic (GPHH) has been successfully applied to automatically evolve effective routing policies to solve the complex Uncertain Capacitated Arc Routing Problem (UCARP). However, GPHH typically ignores the interpretability of the evolved routing policies. As a result, GP-evolved routing policies are often very complex and hard to be understood and trusted by human users. In this paper, we aim to improve the interpretability of the GP-evolved routing policies. To this end, we propose a new Multi-Objective GP (MOGP) to optimise the performance and size simultaneously. A major issue here is that the size is much easier to be optimised than the performance, and the search tends to be biased to the small but poor routing policies. To address this issue, we propose a simple yet effective Two-Stage GPHH (TS-GPHH). In the first stage, only the performance is to be optimised. Then, in the second stage, both objectives are considered (using our new MOGP). The experimental results showed that TS-GPHH could obtain much smaller and more interpretable routing policies than the state-of-the-art single-objective GPHH, without deteriorating the performance. Compared with traditional MOGP, TS-GPHH can obtain a much better and more widespread Pareto front.