Biblio

Modular exponentiation, especially for very large integers of hundreds or thousands of bits, is a commonly used function in popular cryptosystems such as RSA. The complexity of this algorithm is partly driven by the very large word sizes, which require many - often millions - of primitive operations in a CPU implementation, or a large amount of logic when accelerated by an ASIC. FPGAs, with their many embedded DSP resources have started to be used as well. In almost all cases, the calculations have required multiple - occasionally many - clock cycles to complete. Recently, blockchain algorithms have required very low-latency implementations of modular multiplications, motivating new implementations and approaches.In this paper we show nine different high performance modular exponentiation for 1024-bit operands, using a 1024-bit modular multiplication as it’s core. Rather than just showing a number of completed designs, our paper shows the evolution of architectures which lead to different resource mix options. This will allow the reader to apply the examples to different FPGA targets which may have differing ratios of logic, memory, and embedded DSP blocks. In one design, we show a 1024b modular multiplier requiring 83K ALMs and 2372 DSPs, with a delay of 21.21ns.