Recent progress in battery technology has made it possible to use batteries to power various physical platforms, such as ground/air/water vehicles. These platforms require hundreds/thousands of battery cells to meet their power and energy needs. Of these, automobiles, locomotives, and unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) face the most stringent environmental challenges. In particular, and of special importance to the automotive industry, is the transition from conventional powertrains to (plug-in) hybrid and electric vehicles, all of which are subject to environmental and operational variations.