Biblio

Shipboard marine radar systems are essential for safe navigation, helping seafarers perceive their surroundings as they provide bearing and range estimations, object detection, and tracking. Since onboard systems have become increasingly digitized, interconnecting distributed electronics, radars have been integrated into modern bridge systems. But digitization increases the risk of cyberattacks, especially as vessels cannot be considered air-gapped. Consequently, in-depth security is crucial. However, particularly radar systems are not sufficiently protected against harmful network-level adversaries. Therefore, we ask: Can seafarers believe their eyes? In this paper, we identify possible attacks on radar communication and discuss how these threaten safe vessel operation in an attack taxonomy. Furthermore, we develop a holistic simulation environment with radar, complementary nautical sensors, and prototypically implemented cyberattacks from our taxonomy. Finally, leveraging this environment, we create a comprehensive dataset (RadarPWN) with radar network attacks that provides a foundation for future security research to secure marine radar communication.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are drawing enormous attention in both commercial and military applications to facilitate dynamic wireless communications and deliver seamless connectivity due to their flexible deployment, inherent line-of-sight (LOS) air-to-ground (A2G) channels, and high mobility. These advantages, however, render UAV-enabled wireless communication systems susceptible to eavesdropping attempts. Hence, there is a strong need to protect the wireless channel through which most of the UAV-enabled applications share data with each other. There exist various error correction techniques such as Low Density Parity Check (LDPC), polar codes that provide safe and reliable data transmission by exploiting the physical layer but require high transmission power. Also, the security gap achieved by these error-correction techniques must be reduced to improve the security level. In this paper, we present deep learning (DL) enabled punctured LDPC codes to provide secure and reliable transmission of data for UAVs through the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel irrespective of the computational power and channel state information (CSI) of the Eavesdropper. Numerical result analysis shows that the proposed scheme reduces the Bit Error Rate (BER) at Bob effectively as compared to Eve and the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) per bit value of 3.5 dB is achieved at the maximum threshold value of BER. Also, the security gap is reduced by 47.22 % as compared to conventional LDPC codes.

In the recent years, we have witnessed quite notable cyber-attacks targeting industrial automation control systems. Upgrading their cyber security is a challenge, not only due to long equipment lifetimes and legacy protocols originally designed to run in air-gapped networks. Even where multiple data sources are available and collection established, data interpretation usable across the different data sources remains a challenge. A modern hydro power plant contains the data sources that range from the classical distributed control systems to newer IoT- based data sources, embedded directly within the plant equipment and deeply integrated in the process. Even abundant collected data does not solve the security problems by itself. The interpretation of data semantics is limited as the data is effectively siloed. In this paper, the relevance of semantic integration of diverse data sources is presented in the context of a hydro power plant. The proposed semantic integration would increase the data interoperability, unlocking the data siloes and thus allowing ingestion of complementary data sources. The principal target of the data interoperability is to support the data-enhanced cyber security in an operational hydro power plant context. Furthermore, the opening of the data siloes would enable additional usage of the existing data sources in a structured semantically enriched form.

MQTT is widely adopted by IoT devices because it allows for the most efficient data transfer over a variety of communication lines. The security of MQTT has received increasing attention in recent years, and several studies have demonstrated the configurations of many MQTT brokers are insecure. Adversaries are allowed to exploit vulnerable brokers and publish malicious messages to subscribers. However, little has been done to understanding the security issues on the device side when devices handle unauthorized MQTT messages. To fill this research gap, we propose a fuzzing framework named ShadowFuzzer to find client-side vulnerabilities when processing incoming MQTT messages. To avoiding ethical issues, ShadowFuzzer redirects traffic destined for the actual broker to a shadow broker under the control to monitor vulnerabilities. We select 15 IoT devices communicating with vulnerable brokers and leverage ShadowFuzzer to find vulnerabilities when they parse MQTT messages. For these devices, ShadowFuzzer reports 34 zero-day vulnerabilities in 11 devices. We evaluated the exploitability of these vulnerabilities and received a total of 44,000 USD bug bounty rewards. And 16 CVE/CNVD/CN-NVD numbers have been assigned to us.

Many organizations process and store classified data within their computer networks. Owing to the value of data that they hold; such organizations are more vulnerable to targets from adversaries. Accordingly, the sensitive organizations resort to an ‘air-gap’ approach on their networks, to ensure better protection. However, despite the physical and logical isolation, the attackers have successfully manifested their capabilities by compromising such networks; examples of Stuxnet and Agent.btz in view. Such attacks were possible due to the successful manipulation of human beings. It has been observed that to build up such attacks, persistent reconnaissance of the employees, and their data collection often forms the first step. With the rapid integration of social media into our daily lives, the prospects for data-seekers through that platform are higher. The inherent risks and vulnerabilities of social networking sites/apps have cultivated a rich environment for foreign adversaries to cherry-pick personal information and carry out successful profiling of employees assigned with sensitive appointments. With further targeted social engineering techniques against the identified employees and their families, attackers extract more and more relevant data to make an intelligent picture. Finally, all the information is fused to design their further sophisticated attacks against the air-gapped facility for data pilferage. In this regard, the success of the adversaries in harvesting the personal information of the victims largely depends upon the common errors committed by legitimate users while on duty, in transit, and after their retreat. Such errors would keep on repeating unless these are aligned with their underlying human behaviors and weaknesses, and the requisite mitigation framework is worked out.

In the context of cybersecurity systems, trust is the firm belief that a system will behave as expected. Trustworthiness is the proven property of a system that is worthy of trust. Therefore, trust is ephemeral, i.e. trust can be broken; trustworthiness is perpetual, i.e. trustworthiness is verified and cannot be broken. The gap between these two concepts is one which is, alarmingly, often overlooked. In fact, the pressure to meet with the pace of operations for mission critical cross domain solution (CDS) development has resulted in a status quo of high-risk, ad hoc solutions. Trustworthiness, proven through formal verification, should be an essential property in any hardware and/or software security system. We have shown, in "vCDS: A Virtualized Cross Domain Solution Architecture", that developing a formally verified CDS is possible. virtual CDS (vCDS) additionally comes with security guarantees, i.e. confidentiality, integrity, and availability, through the use of a formally verified trusted computing base (TCB). In order for a system, defined by an architecture description language (ADL), to be considered trustworthy, the implemented security configuration, i.e. access control and data protection models, must be verified correct. In this paper we present the first and only security auditing tool which seeks to verify the security configuration of a CDS architecture defined through ADL description. This tool is useful in mitigating the risk of existing solutions by ensuring proper security enforcement. Furthermore, when coupled with the agile nature of vCDS, this tool significantly increases the pace of system delivery.

Cyber-security incidents have grown significantly in modern networks, far more diverse and highly destructive and disruptive. According to the 2021 Cyber Security Statistics Report [1], cybercrime is up 600% during this COVID pandemic, the top attacks are but are not confined to (a) sophisticated phishing emails, (b) account and DNS hijacking, (c) targeted attacks using stealth and air gap malware, (d) distributed denial of services (DDoS), (e) SQL injection. Additionally, 95% of cyber-security breaches result from human error, according to Cybint Report [2]. The average time to identify a breach is 207 days as per Ponemon Institute and IBM, 2022 Cost of Data Breach Report [3]. However, various preventative controls based on cyber-security risk estimation and awareness results decrease most incidents, but not all. Further, any incident detection delay and passive actions to cyber-security incidents put the organizational assets at risk. Therefore, the cyber-security incident management system has become a vital part of the organizational strategy. Thus, the authors propose a framework to converge a "Security Operation Center" (SOC) and a "Network Operations Center" (NOC) in an "Integrated Network Security Operation Center" (INSOC), to overcome cyber-threat detection and mitigation inefficiencies in the near-real-time scenario. We applied the People, Process, Technology, Governance and Compliance (PPTGC) approach to develop the INSOC conceptual framework, according to the requirements we formulated for its operation [4], [5]. The article briefly describes the INSOC conceptual framework and its usefulness, including the central area of the PPTGC approach while designing the framework.

Highly secure devices are often isolated from the Internet or other public networks due to the confidential information they process. This level of isolation is referred to as an ’air-gap .’In this paper, we present a new technique named ETHERLED, allowing attackers to leak data from air-gapped networked devices such as PCs, printers, network cameras, embedded controllers, and servers. Networked devices have an integrated network interface controller (NIC) that includes status and activity indicator LEDs. We show that malware installed on the device can control the status LEDs by blinking and alternating colors, using documented methods or undocumented firmware commands. Information can be encoded via simple encoding such as Morse code and modulated over these optical signals. An attacker can intercept and decode these signals from tens to hundreds of meters away. We show an evaluation and discuss defensive and preventive countermeasures for this exfiltration attack.

This paper introduces a new type of attack on isolated, air-gapped workstations. Although air-gap computers have no wireless connectivity, we show that attackers can use the SATA cable as a wireless antenna to transfer radio signals at the 6 GHz frequency band. The Serial ATA (SATA) is a bus interface widely used in modern computers and connects the host bus to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical drives, and solid-state drives. The prevalence of the SATA interface makes this attack highly available to attackers in a wide range of computer systems and IT environments. We discuss related work on this topic and provide technical background. We show the design of the transmitter and receiver and present the implementation of these components. We also demonstrate the attack on different computers and provide the evaluation. The results show that attackers can use the SATA cable to transfer a brief amount of sensitive information from highly secured, air-gap computers wirelessly to a nearby receiver. Furthermore, we show that the attack can operate from user mode, is effective even from inside a Virtual Machine (VM), and can successfully work with other running workloads in the background. Finally, we discuss defense and mitigation techniques for this new air-gap attack.

Forensic Science comprises a set of technical-scientific knowledge used to solve illicit acts. The increasing use of mobile devices as the main computing platform, in particular smartphones, makes existing information valuable for forensics. However, the blocking mechanisms imposed by the manufacturers and the variety of models and technologies make the task of reconstructing the data for analysis challenging. It is worth mentioning that the conclusion of a case requires more than the simple identification of evidence, as it is extremely important to correlate all the data and sources obtained, to confirm a suspicion or to seek new evidence. This work carries out a systematic review of the literature, identifying the different types of existing image acquisition and the main extraction and encryption methods used in smartphones with the Android operating system.

KYC or Know Your Customer is the procedure to verify the individuality of its consumers & evaluating the possible dangers of illegitimate trade relations. A few problems with the existing KYC manual process are that it is less secure, time-consuming and expensive. With the advent of Blockchain technology, its structures such as consistency, security, and geographical diversity make them an ideal solution to such problems. Although marketing solutions such as KYC-chain.co, K-Y-C. The legal right to enable blockchain-based KYC authentication provides a way for documents to be verified by a trusted network participant. This project uses an ETHereum based Optimised KYC Block-chain system with uniform A-E-S encryption and compression built on the LZ method. The system publicly verifies a distributed encryption, is protected by cryptography, operates by pressing the algorithm and is all well-designed blockchain features. The suggested scheme is a novel explanation based on Distributed Ledger Technology or Blockchain technology that would cut KYC authentication process expenses of organisations & decrease the regular schedule for completion of the procedure whilst becoming easier for clients. The largest difference in the system in traditional methods is the full authentication procedure is performed in just no time for every client, regardless of the number of institutions you desire to be linked to. Furthermore, since DLT is employed, validation findings may be securely distributed to consumers, enhancing transparency. Based on this method, a Proof of Concept (POC) is produced with Ethereum's API, websites as endpoints and the android app as the front office, recognising the viability and efficacy of this technique. Ultimately, this strategy enhances consumer satisfaction, lowers budget overrun & promotes transparency in the customer transport network.

Obfuscation refers to changing the structure of code in a way that original semantics can be hidden. These techniques are often used by application developers for code hardening but it has been found that obfuscation techniques are widely used by malware developers in order to hide the work flow and semantics of malicious code. Class Encryption, Code Re-Ordering, Junk Code insertion and Control Flow modifications are Code Obfuscation techniques. In these techniques, code of the application is changed. These techniques change the signature of the application and also affect the systems that use sequence of instructions in order to detect maliciousness of an application. In this paper an ’Opcode sequence’ based detection system is designed and tested against obfuscated samples. It has been found that the system works efficiently for the detection of non obfuscated samples but the performance is effected significantly against obfuscated samples. The study tests different code obfuscation schemes and reports the effect of each on sequential opcode based analytic system.

Security and Controls with Data privacy in Internet of Things (IoT) devices is not only a present and future technology that is projected to connect a multitude of devices, but it is also a critical survival factor for IoT to thrive. As the quantity of communications increases, massive amounts of data are expected to be generated, posing a threat to both physical device and data security. In the Internet of Things architecture, small and low-powered devices are widespread. Due to their complexity, traditional encryption methods and algorithms are computationally expensive, requiring numerous rounds to encrypt and decode, squandering the limited energy available on devices. A simpler cryptographic method, on the other hand, may compromise the intended confidentiality and integrity. This study examines two lightweight encryption algorithms for Android devices: AES and RSA. On the other hand, the traditional AES approach generates preset encryption keys that the sender and receiver share. As a result, the key may be obtained quickly. In this paper, we present an improved AES approach for generating dynamic keys.

Under the new situation of China's new infrastructure and digital transformation and upgrading, large IT companies such as the United States occupy the market of key information infrastructure components in important fields such as power and energy in China, which makes the risk of key information infrastructure in China's power enterprises become more and more prominent. In the power Internet of Things environment where everything is connected, the back doors and loopholes of basic software and hardware caused by the supply chain risks of key information infrastructure have broken through the foundation of power cyber-security and information security defense, and the security risk management of power key information infrastructure cyber-security has become urgent. Therefore, this paper studies the construction of the cyber-security management framework of key information infrastructure suitable for electric power enterprises, and defines the security risk assessment norms of each link of equipment access to the network. Implement the national cyber-security requirements, promote the cyber-security risk controllable assessment service of key information infrastructure, improve the security protection level of power grid information system from the source, and promote the construction and improvement of the network and information security system of power industry.

This paper proposes a cybersecurity maturity model to assess the capabilities of medical organizations to identify their level of maturity, prioritizing privacy and personal data protection. There are problems such as data breaches, the lack of security measures in health information, and the poor capacity of organizations to handle cybersecurity threats that generate concern in the health sector as they seek to mitigate risks in cyberspace. The proposal, based upon C2M2 (Cybersecurity Capability Maturity Model), incorporates practices and controls which allow organizations to identify security gaps generated through cyberattacks on sensitive health patient data. This model seeks to integrate the best practices related to privacy and protection of personal data in the Peruvian legal framework through the Administrative Directive No. 294-MINSA and the personal data protection Act No. 29733. The model consists of 3 evaluation phases. 1. Assessment planning; 2. Execution of the evaluation; 3. Implementation of improvements. The model was validated and tested in a public sector medical organization in Lima, Peru. The preliminary results showed that the organization is at Level 1 with 14% of compliance with established controls, 34% in risk, threat and vulnerability management practices and 19% in supply chain management. These the 3 highest percentages of the 10 evaluated domains.

Due to the increasing complexity of modern hetero-geneous System-on-Chips (SoC) and the growing vulnerabilities, security risk assessment and quantification is required to measure the trustworthiness of a SoC. This paper describes a systematic approach to model the security risk of a system for malicious hardware attacks. The proposed method uses graph analysis to assess the impact of an attack and the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS) is used to quantify the security level of the system. To demonstrate the applicability of the proposed metric, we consider two open source SoC benchmarks with different architectures. The overall risk is calculated using the proposed metric by computing the exploitability and impact of attack on critical components of a SoC.

Design of smart risk assessment system for the agricultural products and the food safety inspection based on multivariate data analysis is studied in this paper. The designed quality traceability system also requires the collaboration and cooperation of various companies in the supply chain, and a unified database, including agricultural product identification system, code system and security status system, is required to record in detail the trajectory and status of agricultural products in the logistics chain. For the improvement, the multivariate data analysis is combined. Hadoop cannot be used on hardware with high price and high reliability. Even for groups with high probability of the problems, HDFS will continue to use when facing problems, and at the same time. Hence, the core model of HDFS is applied into the system. In the verification part, the analytic performance is simulated.

Vendor cybersecurity risk assessment is of critical importance to smart city infrastructure and sustainability of the autonomous mobility ecosystem. Lack of engagement in cybersecurity policies and process implementation by the tier companies providing hardware or services to OEMs within this ecosystem poses a significant risk to not only the individual companies but to the ecosystem overall. The proposed quantitative method of estimating cybersecurity risk allows vendors to have visibility to the financial risk associated with potential threats and to consequently allocate adequate resources to cybersecurity. It facilitates faster implementation of defense measures and provides a useful tool in the vendor selection process. The paper focuses on cybersecurity risk assessment as a critical part of the overall company mission to create a sustainable structure for maintaining cybersecurity health. Compound cybersecurity risk and impact on company operations as outputs of this quantitative analysis present a unique opportunity to strategically plan and make informed decisions towards acquiring a reputable position in a sustainable ecosystem. This method provides attack trees and assigns a risk factor to each vendor thus offering a competitive advantage and an insight into the supply chain risk map. This is an innovative way to look at vendor cybersecurity posture. Through a selection of unique industry specific parameters and a modular approach, this risk assessment model can be employed as a tool to navigate the supply base and prevent significant financial cost. It generates synergies within the connected vehicle ecosystem leading to a safe and sustainable economy.

Today’s Supply Chains (SC) are engulfed in a maelstrom of risks which arise mainly from uncertain, contradictory, and incomplete information. A decision-making process is required in order to detect threats, assess risks, and implements mitigation methods to address these issues. However, Neutrosophic Data Analytic Hierarchy Process (NDAHP) allows for a more realistic reflection of real-world problems while taking into account all factors that lead to effective risk assessment for Multi Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM). The purpose of this paper consists of an implementation of the NDAHP for MCDM aiming to identifying, ranking, prioritizing and analyzing risks without considering SC’ expert opinions. To that end, we proceed, first, for selecting and analyzing the most 23 relevant risk indicators that have a significant impact on the SC considering three criteria: severity, occurrence, and detection. After that, the NDAHP method is implemented and showcased, on the selected risk indicators, throw an illustrative example. Finally, we discuss the usability and effectiveness of the suggested method for the SCRM purposes.

The purpose of this research work is to develop an approach based on risk management with a view to provide managers and decision-makers with assistance and appropriate guidelines to combine Lean and Green in a successful and integrated way. Risk cannot be managed if not well-identified; hence, a classification of supply chain risks in a Lean Green context was provided. Subsequently to risk identification an approach based on Weighted Product Method (WPM) was proposed; for risk assessment and prioritization, for its ease of use, flexibility and board adaptability. The output of this analysis provides visibility about organization's position toward desired performance and underlines crucial risks to be addressed which marks the starting point of the way to performance improvement. A case study was introduced to demonstrate the applicability and relevance of the developed framework.

The assurance of the operability of surface water treatment facilities lies in many factors, but the factor with the largest impact on said assurance is the availability of the necessary chemicals. Facilities across the country vary in their processes and sources, but all require chemicals to produce potable water. The purpose of this project was to develop a risk assessment tool to determine the shortfalls and risks in the water treatment industry's chemical supply chain, which was used to produce a risk mitigation plan ensuring plant operability. To achieve this, a Fault Tree was built to address four main areas of concern: (i) market supply and demand, (ii) chemical substitutability, (iii) chemical transportation, and (iv) chemical storage process. Expert elicitation was then conducted to formulate a Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) and develop Radar Charts, regarding the operations and management of specific plants. These tools were then employed to develop a final risk mitigation plan comprising two parts: (i) a quantitative analysis comparing and contrasting the risks of the water treatment plants under study and (ii) a qualitative recommendation for each of the plants-both culminating in a mitigation model on how to control and monitor chemical-related risks.

Logistics risk assessment in the supply chain is considered as one of the important topics that has attracted the attention of researchers in recent years; Companies that struggle to manage their logistical risks by not putting in place resilient strategies to mitigate them, may suffer from significant financial losses; The automotive industry is a vital sector for the Moroccan economy, the year 2020, the added-value of the automotive industry in Morocco is higher than that of the fertilizer (Fathi, n.d.) [1], This sector is considered the first exporter of the country. Our study will focuses on the assessment of the pure logistical risks in the moroccan automotive industry. Our main objective for this study is to assess the logistical risks which will allow us to put in place proactive and predictive resilient strategies for their mitigation.

In most PUF-based authentication schemes, a central server is usually engaged to verify the response of the device’s PUF to challenge bit-streams. However, the server availability may be intermittent in practice. To tackle such an issue, this paper proposes a new protocol for supporting distributed authentication while avoiding vulnerability to information leakage where CRPs could be retrieved from hacked devices and collectively used to model the PUF. The main idea is to provision for scrambling the challenge bit-stream in a way that is dependent on the verifier. The scrambling pattern varies per authentication round for each device and independently across devices. In essence, the scrambling function becomes node- and packetspecific and the response received by two verifiers of one device for the same challenge bit-stream could vary. Thus, neither the scrambling function can be reverted, nor the PUF can be modeled even by a collusive set of malicious nodes. The validation results using data of an FPGA-based implementation demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach in thwarting PUF modeling attacks by collusive actors. We also discuss the approach resiliency against impersonation, Sybil, and reverse engineering attacks.

Vehicular crowdsensing (VCS) is a subset of crowd-sensing where data collection is outsourced to group vehicles. Here, an entity interested in collecting data from a set of Places of Sensing Interest (PsI), advertises a set of sensing tasks, and the associated rewards. Vehicles attracted by the offered rewards deviate from their ongoing trajectories to visit and collect from one or more PsI. In this win-to-win scenario, vehicles reach their final destination with the extra reward, and the entity obtains the desired samples. Unfortunately, the efficiency of VCS can be undermined by the Sybil attack, in which an attacker can benefit from the injection of false vehicle identities. In this paper, we present a case study and analyze the effects of such an attack. We also propose a defense mechanism based on generative adversarial neural networks (GANs). We discuss GANs' advantages, and drawbacks in the context of VCS, and new trends in GANs' training that make them suitable for VCS.

As a result of the inherent weaknesses of the wireless medium, ad hoc networks are susceptible to a broad variety of threats and assaults. As a direct consequence of this, intrusion detection, as well as security, privacy, and authentication in ad-hoc networks, have developed into a primary focus of current study. This body of research aims to identify the dangers posed by a variety of assaults that are often seen in wireless ad-hoc networks and provide strategies to counteract those dangers. The Black hole assault, Wormhole attack, Selective Forwarding attack, Sybil attack, and Denial-of-Service attack are the specific topics covered in this thesis. In this paper, we describe a trust-based safe routing protocol with the goal of mitigating the interference of black hole nodes in the course of routing in mobile ad-hoc networks. The overall performance of the network is negatively impacted when there are black hole nodes in the route that routing takes. As a result, we have developed a routing protocol that reduces the likelihood that packets would be lost as a result of black hole nodes. This routing system has been subjected to experimental testing in order to guarantee that the most secure path will be selected for the delivery of packets between a source and a destination. The invasion of wormholes into a wireless network results in the segmentation of the network as well as a disorder in the routing. As a result, we provide an effective approach for locating wormholes by using ordinal multi-dimensional scaling and round trip duration in wireless ad hoc networks with either sparse or dense topologies. Wormholes that are linked by both short route and long path wormhole linkages may be found using the approach that was given. In order to guarantee that this ad hoc network does not include any wormholes that go unnoticed, this method is subjected to experimental testing. In order to fight against selective forwarding attacks in wireless ad-hoc networks, we have developed three different techniques. The first method is an incentive-based algorithm that makes use of a reward-punishment system to drive cooperation among three nodes for the purpose of vi forwarding messages in crowded ad-hoc networks. A unique adversarial model has been developed by our team, and inside it, three distinct types of nodes and the activities they participate in are specified. We have shown that the suggested strategy that is based on incentives prohibits nodes from adopting an individualistic behaviour, which ensures collaboration in the process of packet forwarding. To guarantee that intermediate nodes in resource-constrained ad-hoc networks accurately convey packets, the second approach proposes a game theoretic model that uses non-cooperative game theory. This model is based on the idea that game theory may be used. This game reaches a condition of desired equilibrium, which assures that cooperation in multi-hop communication is physically possible, and it is this state that is discovered. In the third algorithm, we present a detection approach that locates malicious nodes in multihop hierarchical ad-hoc networks by employing binary search and control packets. We have shown that the cluster head is capable of accurately identifying the malicious node by analysing the sequences of packets that are dropped along the path leading from a source node to the cluster head. A lightweight symmetric encryption technique that uses Binary Playfair is presented here as a means of safeguarding the transport of data. We demonstrate via experimentation that the suggested encryption method is efficient with regard to the amount of energy used, the amount of time required for encryption, and the memory overhead. This lightweight encryption technique is used in clustered wireless ad-hoc networks to reduce the likelihood of a sybil attack occurring in such networks